1055 

y 1 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE 
TEACHER 

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY 



BY 
MARTIN LUTHER REYMERT 



A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF 
CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS., IN PARTIAL 
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DE- 
GREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, AND ACCEPTED ON 
THE RECOMMENDATION OF WILLIAM H. BURNHAM 



Reprinted from The Pedagogical Seminary 
December, 1917, Vol. XXIV, pp. 521-558 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE 
TEACHER 

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY 



BY 
MARTIN LUTHER REYMERT 



A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF 
CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER. MASS., IN PARTIAL 
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DE- 
GREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, AND ACCEPTED ON 
THE RECOMMENDATION OF WILLIAM H. BURNHAM 



Reprinted from The Pedagogical Seminary 
December, 1917, Vol. XXIV, pp. 521-558 



LB\0»s\5' 






THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER: AN 
INTRODUCTORY STUDY 



By Martin Luther Reymert 



Introduction 

This study hcas grown organically out of my Norwegian 
work in child psychology (50, 51). In going over the inter- 
national literature which had more or less direct bearmg upon 
my problems I was frequently confronted with the remark: 
" This result is probably due to the influence of the teacher." 
In my own work also I very soon found it necessary to seek 
refuge in this mysterious sesame whenever I attempted an 
explanation, and special statistical and psychological data 
failed to solve the problem in hand. The fact (witnessed by 
all studies from all countries of children's ideals) that by 
far the greater part of the children gain their ideals from 
the curriculum, and the relation of this to the results of recent 
studies on imitation and suggestion,^ indicated to me that the 
problem of the role of the teacher was one which stood m 
need of immediate investigation by all available means and 

methods. . , . ^ 

Since educational psvchology has concerned itselt chietly 
with the child in school, it has naturally happened now and 
then that the problem has been touched indirectly as for 
instance in the investigations of Meumann. Fnedrich, Lobsien, 
Goddard, Richter, Brandel, and others in the subjects of chil- 
dren's ideals, their interest in the different schoo subjects, 
etc. Meumann (43. p. 291) stresses the role of the teacher 
in this indirect fashion when he says that studies on chil- 
dren's ideals " also " furnish a valuable means by which we 
may judge our whole educational system." 

We do not know, however, precisely (or even approxi- 
mately) how much credit we must give to the teacher mall 
these mass investigations. The scientific study of the child, 
whether by clinical psychology, by quantitative measurements 
of the school work, or by the great and promising work of 
general experimental psychology {1, Z, ^, ^, ^^, ^^. ^-^^ "'^^' 
generallyspeaking^m^ 

iSee Burnham, W. HTBibliographi^T^^T^^peHn^^ pedagogy, Pub. 
of Clark Univ. Library. 1912, vol. 3, PP- ^3, 27. 



522 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

the actual role of the teacher. These questions are constantly 
growing in number, however, and some essential ones repeat 
themselves over and over, so that we evidently must try to 
attack them more directly and thereby get suggestions and 
results which will enable us to check our findings in child 
study. The study of the child has had industrious workers 
for many decades, and, gradually refining its methods, has 
spread to all countries. With the rapid tempo of modern 
inductive science it has already created an abundance of 
literature. Differentiating itself into numerous branches, it 
long ago passed the stage at which one man can master the 
whole field. A writer in Monroe's Cyclopedia finds it difficult 
to determine what in modern times shall be included in the 
term " educational psychology " so complex is already the 
situation. Child psychology, properly conducted, was long ago 
recognized as a branch of applied psychology. Well-equipped 
laboratories, headed by noted psychologists, are established in 
many countries. 

With this general background, it is indeed an astonishing 
fact that no one has yet tried to study in any exhaustive and 
systematic way and in as direct fashion as is possible a factor 
so closely related to the child's environment as the teacher. 
This lack besides the often necessarily (and often unneces- 
sarily) crude methods is certainly a main reason why child 
study has been somewhat in discredit among psychologists in 
general. Thus we see, for example, that Dr. Judd (34) takes 
precisely this defect as a reason for distrusting child study. 
He says : " Did you never wonder why, in this age when 
we are studying so eagerly all the factors in the educational 
situation, no one has ever undertaken an exhaustive study 
of the teacher? " And further: " We take up psychology and 
sociology, but we do not seem to have waked up to the fact 
that bad order in our classes is sometimes a problem in teacher 
study instead of child study." In his excellent textbook 
Claparede (14) says: "Given a group of children to bring 
up, to instruct, what is the attitude that it is desirable 
the teacher take on coming face to face with them, what 
ought to be the character of the teacher? What are the 
temperaments which are the most suitable for the pedagogic 
vocation?" He is forced, however, to content himself with 
assigning the psychology of the master as a branch of psycho- 
technics ; the paucity here of his uniformly excellent bibliog- 
raphy is further evidence of the necessity for further detailed 
research on this problem. The bibliography of the United 
States Bureau of Education for 1910-11 (71) contains 1910 
titles of which only 0.8% have a direct bearing on the teacher, 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 523 

and of these nearly all are theoretical treatments. In the 
Psychological Index for 1915 only four or five titles are 
directly concerned with the teacher. 

All this serves to illustrate the situation. In searching 
the literature for possible experimental attacks on the problem 
of the personal equation of the teacher, I find that Dr. G. 
Stanley Hall was the first to have fixed the problem, and 
that as early as 1896 he had directed his students' attention 
to it. In "Adolescence " (27, p. 387) he mentions the ques- 
tionnaire studies of Small (60), Kratz {2>7), and Sanford 
Bell (6). Among these Sanford Bell's seem to be the most 
exhaustive and to give the best indications. The next study 
is one undertaken in 1900 by Deahl (16). His material, 
however, is in a shape which makes it very difficult to get 
any definite results from it. (One of his results seems to be 
that pupils are least influenced by teachers at the high school 
age, which is in direct opposition to Sanford Bell's as well 
♦as to my own findings.) 

A later study is reported by Book (8). One thousand sixty- 
seven senior high school students wrote compositions on " High 
School Education " including the point " some sympathetic 
(or unsympathetic) teachers I have had." The main outcome 
was : The favorite teacher understands boys and girls, and 
is enthusiastic, energetic, and mentally young, is interested 
in his work and has good scholarship without being a narrow 
specialist. No sex, and no physical appearance preferences 
were shown. The study is very suggestive, and gives many 
practical hints, but deals naturally with generalities. We may 
also mention a quantitative study by Thorndike (67), bear- 
ing on the sex of the teacher as a possible influence on the 
enrollment of boys in the public schools. The value of a 
quantitative study of such a fleeting factor among a multitude 
of others of probably greater influence seems very problematic, 
and his results turn out to be negative. 

In 1910, with the study of Ruediger and Strayer (54) in 
this country, we find for the first time in the literature of 
experimental pedagogy a work offering an objective method 
for rating the influence and efficiency of elementary teachers 
from the point of view of supervision. These investigators 
asked a number of principals and superintendents to rank 
their teachers (from 26 schools in all) in certain specific 
respects. It suffices here to mention that discipline stands 
first in the ratings of these school authorities, followed by 
" teaching method," initiative or originality, etc. Later ap- 
peared similar studies by A. C. Boyse (12), Miss Moses (44), 
Littler (40), and finally another by Boyse (11) in which he 



524 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

offers an estimation blank, compiled from empirical data, 
for the purpose of estimating the teacher's efficiency on 45 
points. Each point is carefully defnied, to avoid the use of 
terms in different senses by the different raters. This plan 
offers many promising indications for future " standardised " 
blanks, from which students of education can draw an abund- 
ance of material concerning the comparative traits in good 
teachers for different grades. However, as Boyse points out, 
the work of standardisation is a very complex and difficult 
matter, and it is our opinion that numerous special investiga- 
tions as to the reactions of the child to different traits in the 
teacher must be instituted and their results brought into rela- 
tion before any final standardisation is undertaken. 

The only studies in French literature dealing with the prob- 
lem of the teacher that I have discovered are one by Claparede 
on what pupils think of their masters, and a small but signifi- 
cant one by Joncheere (33). After he had been acquainted 
with the new class in his normal school for two months he 
questioned every pupil in a personal interview to discover 
the reason why he entered thfe school. It turned out that not 
a single one had done so out of a real interest in the vocation. 
The materialistic advantages of the profession were the chief 
motives. This is indeed an enlightening and fundamental con- 
tribution as a background for future investigations of the 
personality of the teacher. 

In Germany the work of J. Diick (20) marks an interesting 
and practical approach to the circle of problems contemplated 
in our investigation. In Scandinavian countries no direct 
experimental attack is to be found. There are, however, in 
all countries, many valuable statements as to the influence of 
the teacher on the basis of long teaching experience or from 
general psychological observation scattered through books and 
periodicals. As excellent examples may be mentioned those 
of Jerusalem (31, 32) and H. Gaudig (25, 26) in Germany, 
and of Nils Hertzberg (29) in Norway. Perhaps even more 
valuable counsel on the basis of a similarly general background 
is to be found in the American works of William James (30), 
Miinsterberg (46), and Hall (27, 28).- 

This brief review of the present status of our problem we 
may summarise as follows : The study of the teacher has with 
the exception of a very few experimental studies been very 
much neglected. Such studies are, however, of paramount 

^As a good background for coming studies in regard to the teacher 
in this country I would deem it very fruitful to read Dr. Hall's des- 
cription of the good and bad aspects of the pedagogical situation (28, 
vol. I. Introduction). 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 525 

importance in the study of the school child ; in fact, they are 
a conditio sine qua non for a large number of problems in child 
study. They open up a vast and exceedingly complex field 
for investigation which will demand the co-operation of stu- 
dents in all branches of pedagogical science. It is for the 
purpose of getting a rough outlook over this field, and for 
throwing into relief the essential questions which demand 
immediate investigation, that the present questionnaire study 
has been undertaken. 

Some Remarks on the Method. — The questionnaire method 
has lately been severely criticized by many noted psychologists. 
It must be admitted that much of the criticism — when we con- 
sider the way in which some questionnaire studies have been 
conducted — has been more than justified. G. E. Miiller calls 
it " the method of reminiscence." A French psychologist 
terms it " La methode democratique." Professor Jastrow at 
the annual meeting of " The American Association for the 
Advancement of Science," 1916, said: "Many of us think 
it belongs to the devil." However, we can understand that 
psychologists dealing chiefly with pure science will find the 
method of no value for them. What, however, is more diffi- 
cult to understand is that an educational psychologist like 
Thorndike (66) after a thorough discussion of the method, 
in an entire chapter, seems to reach the final conclusion that 
it, generally speaking, ought to be entirely abandoned. While 
we can fully agree with much of his criticism, and appreciate 
the constructive factors in it, we can not agree with his con- 
clusion. Much better do we in this connection understand 
Claparede (14) and William Stern. Stern (63, Chapter VIII) 
also at the outset condemned questionnaires, but he later 
changed his view to the effect, that for certain problems, prop- 
erly conducted, the method was, although a rough one, per- 
missible. Thorndike, speaking of questionnaires (66, Chapter 
IX), offers the following program for the future work: "It 
is to be hoped, that if an equal amount of genius and effort 
is spent in the next decade upon similar problems, the work 
will be done by means of direct expert observation, of repre- 
sentative cases, with reference to all the factors involved,^ and 

^The most impressive work in analytical science, which tries to take 
"all factors involved" into consideration 1 have met, is G. E. Miiller, 
"Zur Analyse der Gedachtnisstatigkeit und des Vorstellungsvcrlaufes." 
Zeit. f. Psych, u. Phys. der Sinncsorgane." Erg. B. V ., and with which 
I have been made familiar through Dr. Baird's Journal Club at Clark 
University. However, to gain such a gigantic outlook over a situation 
is probably not given to one man in thousands. In educational psychol- 
ogy, where we are at the mere start, we shall have to be humble for a 
long time to come. 



526 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

with a moderate amount of statistical care." This exceedingly 
voluminous phrase (which also has crept into Monroe's Cyclo- 
pedia) does not take us very far. Experts are very few. 

" Representative cases " in the educational situation of 
to-day are hard to find ; and do not bring out the particular 
needs, as do the special investigations. It is too early to 
deal with generalities in experimental pedagogy. We started 
out that way. Now is the time to gather masses of special 
facts — and correlate them slowly, as we go along. Where 
is the genius to take all factors involved into consideration ! 
While generally speaking we may say, that in all inductive 
science, discussion of method may be of more importance than 
discussion of results, we think it most sane and safe to 
take the view of Dr. Hall, that method can not be discussed 
on a general basis, and that a method is permissible, when 
properly conducted, it suits its purpose. In spite of clinical 
child psychology, in spite of quantitative educational measure- 
ments, etc., we are not in pedagogical psychology out of the 
stage at which we need questionnaire studies. Let us use all 
methods, and correlate the results. 

For my purpose the following questionnaire was prepared 
and submitted: 

The Good and Bad Teacher 

The undersigned desires to ascertain from the memories of adults 
what qualities made teachers favorite and what made them disHked. 
Will you kindly answer the following questions, numbering them in 
your paper as they are numbered below, and the fuller and more 
detailed your reply, the better. 

Please think over very carefully before selecting your teachers as 
good or bad, and please at the end add any other traits or suggestions 
that occur to you, and that may help this study. Can you outline your 
ideal of a teacher in person, etc.? How much has physique, good looks, 
manners, complexion, physical strength, to do with it ; and do moral 
and do religious traits play any role? Please especially speak of the 
teacher's influence upon you outside the school. 

I. Please recall the best teacher that you ever had. 

a. Was this a man or a woman? 

b. How old was this teacher? Give age as near as possible. 

c. How old were you when you had this teacher? 

d. Was it the personality or the methods (or both) employed by 

this teacher that caused you to like him or her? 

e. H through his or her teaching, in which subject or subjects? 
\ II. State in as few words as possible what you remember as to the 

following : 

a. This teacher's general appearance (physical, dress, neatness, 

etc.). 

b. The quality of his or her voice. 

c. Enthusiasm — optimism. 

d. Serious or jovial or changeable in nature. 

e. Was he or she self-controlled? In what way did it appear? 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 527 

f. Was he or she "bookish" or did this teacher bring you in 

touch with life? Enthusiastic specialist? 

g. Was this teacher strict in discipline? 

h. What kind of punishments did this teacher use? 

i. Had you the feeling of being specially favored? In what 

respect? 
j. Did this teacher visit the homes of the pupils? What were 

this teacher's social activities with the children outside of 

the school? 
k. What was the highest ideal this teacher held up before you? 
I. Has this teacher's influence been of real value to you in your 

later life, if so in what way? 
m. Have your methods and general teaching management been 

influenced by (him or her) ? If you are going to teach, 

do you think that they will ? 

III. Please recall the worst teacher that you ever had. 

a. Was this teacher a man or woman? 

b. How old was this teacher? Give age as near as possible. 

c. How old were you when you had this teacher? 

d. Was it the personality or the methods employed that caused 

you to dislike her or him? 

e. If through teaching, in which subject or subjects? 

IV. State in as few words as possible what you remember as to the 
following: 

a. This teacher's general appearance. 

b. The quality of his or her voice. 

c. Enthusiasm or optimism. 

d. Serious or jovial or changeable in nature? 

e. Was this teacher self-controlled? In what way was self- 

control lacking? 

f. Was this teacher "bookish," or did he bring you in touch 

with life? 

g. Was he or she strict in discipline? 

h. What kind of punishments did this teacher use? 

i. Had you the feeling of being specially misused, or what 

was this teacher's sense of justice? 
j. Did this teacher visit the homes of the pupils? 
k. Did this teacher hold up any ideal for you? 
1. Has this teacher's influence had any bearing on your later 

life? If so, in what way? 
m. Have your methods and general teaching management been 

influenced by this teacher as a negative ideal? If you are 

going to teach, what do you think will be the bearing of 

this teacher? 

Kindly send replies to Martin L. Reymert. 

(Notice. Your paper will be read only by me. Your sex and age?) 
Clark University, Worcester, Mass., December 21, 1916. 

Seven hundred and fourteen returns in all were received, 
370 on the good, and 344 on the bad teacher. I am greatly 
indebted to the following institutions for taking a great 
interest in, and helping this study along, by sending returns; 
above all, the Massachusetts State Normal School (Worcester, 
Mass.), from which the majority of returns were obtained; 



528 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

Ohio University, Boston University, Brown University, Rhode 
Island; Alma College, Michigan; Bethel College, Kentucky; 
Leland Stanford Junior University, California; State Teach- 
ers College, Colorado ; Colorado College, Colorado Springs ; 
Buena Vista College, Iowa; Baldwin-Wallace College, Ohio; 
Alleghany College, Pennsylvania; University of Arkansas; 
Texas Christian University. 

The variety of places from which answers have been ob- 
tained is a valuable factor in eliminating the possible 
uniformity in training and experience of the young people 
belonging to one special institution. The questionnaires were 
given to the pupils to take home for careful consideration. 
Afterwards the answers were delivered at school. In one case 
the returns were given as regular composition work in school. 
I have reasons to believe that the answers have not been read 
by the collectors, so that the factor of full anonymity, which 
for instance, Triiper has advocated over and over again for 
questionnaire studies, has been complied with. The median 
age for the young men and women, giving the returns, is 20, 
so that one will have to take the psyche at this age into con- 
sideration throughout the study. All answers give full evidence 
of sincerity and interest from the side of the young, and they 
all seem to have a vivid recollection of a good and a bad 
teacher. Some have even portrayed their liked and disliked 
teacher so minutely and extensively, that often one single 
return, would make a small book. 

By letting the questionnaire also have a bearing upon the 
bad teacher, it was the intention to get returns by which we 
could be able to check our results as to the good teacher, in 
whom we naturally are primarily interested. 

In going over the answers, it appeared that some of the 
questions might have been given a better form. However, as 
this study is meant to be chiefly suggestive and programatical, 
this fact has not had very much practical significance. As 
to the often mentioned source of error in such studies, viz., 
that the questions in themselves suggest certain definite 
answers, I have the general impression that all of the 20- 
year-old people have given straightforward answers, omitting 
answers on points where their actual memory was not clear. 
All students have answered the particular question, in all cases, 
where results are given in percent, and no remark to the 
contrary is made. 

The Sex of the Teacher 
Much has been written about the relative proportion of 
women and men teachers in this country, and warnings have 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 529 

been given as to the constantly increasing number of female 
teachers in the common schools. But as Dr. Strayer (64) 
says : " Up to the present time no conclusive evidence has 
been produced as to the relative efficiency of men and women 
teachers." Our study here naturally does not intend to give 
any definite results, but it is to be hoped that it will help 
to shed some valuable light upon the question. 

Dr. Elliot (21) gives the following proportions for 1910: 

Women teachers 78.9% 

Men teachers 21 . 1% 

The statistician of the United States Bureau of Education 
(World's Almanac, 1917) gives for 1914: 

Women teachers 80 . 2% 

Men teachers 19.8% 

or an increase of 1.3% female teachers in 4 years.* 

Let us take the statistics last mentioned as a basis for com- 
parison with our own results: 

Women Men 

teachers teachers 

U. S. Bur. of Ed. statistics, 1914 80.2% 19.8% 

Distribution of the outstanding' good teachers, 
designated by 370 20-vear-old people in their 

recalling 71.5% 29.0% 

In spite of the fact then that the young people have met 
approximately 1 man teacher for every 4 women teachers, 
they have nevertheless found 9% more good men teachers, 
than we should have expected (if men and women teachers 
were of equal value in the school system). 

Women Men 

Out of 370 good teachers 71.0% 29 . 0% 

Out of .344 bad teachers 74. 1% 25 9% 

We see the tendency : there are in proportion to the number 
of teachers of both sexes more bad women teachers than men 
and more good men teachers than women, which gives a due 
confirmation to our previous conclusion as to the need of 
more men. 

^ This increase has also gained the attention of eugenicists as a 
problem of great significance for the future of the race. (Cf. 74, p. 
259f-) Speaking of the American situation, the writer says: "Not 
less than half a million women, therefore, are potentially affected by 
the institution of pedagogical celibacy, — an institution which is to be 
compared with that of sacerdotal celibacy in the amount of perma- 
nent harm that it is capable of doing to the race." Certainly we are 
facing an exceedingly complex problem whose solution cannot be 
brought about by merely pedagogical investigations. 



530 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

If we look upon the High School Period separately, we 
have: 

Women Men 

Out of 182 ?.ood teachers 65 . 4 % 34 . 6 % 

Out of 168 terf teachers 67.3% 32.7% 

Let us examine these results in the light of Thorndike's 
findings (67) that: "The central tendency (in high schools) 
is to have j out of 8 teachers men." " If the two sexes were 
of equal value then our sex proportions for teachers in high 
schools should have been: 

Women Men 
5 3 

whereas we get 

For good teachers 5.2 2.8 

For bad teachers 5.4 2.6 

which result although corresponding pretty closely to that of 
Thorndike, shows in less marked degree the same tendency 
that we found for teachers within the whole school system. 
The question as to which sex of teachers suits the situation 
best at different stages^ in the school system for boys and 
girls will, it is to be hoped, be brought nearer a conclusive 
solution when we get the standardized estimation blanks 
mentioned before in cities and rural communities. However, 
from the point of view of the teacher's general influence upon 
the pupils, it will always be necessary to check the results from 
official estimation blanks by supplementary investigations like 
the different ones which will be suggested in the study here 
presented. These ought to be carried on on as large a scale 
as possible in every large city, and brought into correlative 
comparison with the views of psycho-pedagogical experts. 

The general influence of the teacher in its relation to the 
age of the pupil. — If we take the life period from which the 
pupils have their most vivid recollections of their best and 
their worst teacher as an indicator of children's general 
susceptibility for good and evil influence from teachers, the 
following diagram may give indications. All, both good and 
bad teachers, are taken into account. 

We see, then, the general influence of the teacher constantly 
rising upward through the school system, reaching a quite 
remarkable climax for the high school period. From the point 

^ A factor which may have some vahie for purposes of correlation 
here is seen in the fact that in one of my Norwegian studies (51) 
girls from 18-25 years of age had a man as their personal ideal in 
56% of the cases, while only one man had chosen his ideal from the 
other sex. 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 531 

A 

The iNrLUENCE or thc Teacmcr Tmroucmoot 
The 5chool 5ystem. (loTrtt Reiurn^ 714- ) 



■4a 

35 

30 
Is 
20 
IS 




3 



of view of general psychology one may make the objection 
here, that on the average the 20-year-old people, giving their 
returns, have a better memory for more recent events (the 
high school period) than for further removed ones (the grade 
school). However the vivid colors in which the good and 
the bad teachers in the grade schools are described in nearly 
all returns dealing with that period, seem to indicate that 
the factor mentioned has had very little significance. The 
few returns for the college age forbid any even suggestive 
results to be drawn for that period. 

Let us now look in detail upon the relative influence of the 
good teacher according to the age of the pupil. The curves 
in Diagram B will give us some indications : 

The first thing we notice is the considerable peak of the 
woman teacher curve at 12*' years of age of the pupil. This 
is in all probability due to the onset of puberty in girls, and 

^ Sanford Bell has the greatest good influence coming in girls of the 
ages from 11-17, in boys from 12-19. 



532 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 



19. 



B 



18 DlSTRIBUTlOM'or T«e INFLUENCC OF T«C GOOD 

TEftCHER ACCCRDINC TO THE AGE OF THE PUPIL< 
17 -^ 

16 

IS 

14 

13 

12 

It 

14 



o a 



0.7 



Women ----(27a " } 



2 / 




•- ^W f « IV IW CU fcl^< 

oge: or Pupils 

to their never forgetting having had a sympathetic woman 
teacher personaHty at that highly susceptible age. The con- 
siderable drop in the same curve at 14 years of age of the 
pupil may be ventured to a large degree to be explained in 
the change of school. This is generally the first year of high 
school. The pupil is met with almost entirely new methods 
of learning, new teachers, etc. ; in short, it is a year of 
readjustment. 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 



533 



C. 



O 

a. 8 






e 

5 

4 

3 , 
a/ 




CO 

19 

THE OISTBIBUTIOW OF THt IHFLUtHCE 

'* OF THE BAD TEACMCR ACCORC1IM6 TO THE 

,^ A6E OF THE PUPIL5. 

16 

IS 



Age of Pupils 

Looking at the man teacher curve, we see the remarkable 
influence of a good man teacher for the ages 15-18 i^rom 
the girls' answers I have no doubt that the factor of the emo- 
tional elements following the sexual development of the girl, 
enters in here, as a very determining one. I take the explana- 
tion to be a confusion between the " father miage and the 
growing embryo of the forthcoming natural unconscious 
inclination towards the other sex; a period then when a 



534 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

really trustworthy good man teacher for girls meets an un- 
conscious but all important demand for their future develop- 
ment, better than any other teacher, and a period, when a 
tactless man teacher can do more harm than any other teacher. 
(Chart C.) The following diagram C seems closely to check 
up our suggestive results concerning the good teacher. 

The curves have the same general shape, the climax of 
the influence of the bad teacher (man or woman), however, 
being shifted to 14 years of age of the pupil (from 16 for 
the good). Taking both chart B and C into consideration 
we reach this general conclusion for the 14th year of the 
pupils : they report very fezv good teachers, and the greatest 
nmnbcr of poor ones, both men and women. What can be 
the explanation for this remarkable fact? On the one hand, 
the 14th year may be marked by special determining psycho- 
physical traits. I have, however, not been able to find satis- 
factory evidence to this effect in the psychophysical investi- 
gations dealing with the ages around puberty. On the other 
hand, there seems to be an abundance of indications for our 
seeking the explanation zvithin the scope of the school system. 
As we pointed out before, the 14th year generally means the 
first year of High School. Our result here then may be 
taken as one more proof that there seems to be something 
seriously wrong with this " transfer year," within the present 
school system, and that the Junior High School may here 
come in as a beneficial and highly necessary remedy. With 
regard to the preparation and selection of teachers for this 
new school, I should like to stress from the results obtained 
in this study, that one can hardly he careful enough. If the 
coming Junior High School is going to be a new school form 
simply, then it will mean very little or nothing. H, however, 
it is going to be built up on the broad background of all that 
we know about the psychic, physical, moral, development 
of the pupil, as pointed out in an excellent outlook over the 
whole situation by Douglass (18), and if the teachers for 
this new school be specially and broadly trained, then it may 
mean nothing less than a real epoch in the history of American 
pedagogy — furnishing thus also an ideal model for other 
countries.'^ 

^ If the common complaint that boys in American schools are being 
feminized on acount of too many woman teachers is true, the military 
training which the country is now planning might to a large degree 
compensate for this. The nation is in this matter facing a tremendous 
problem from an educational point of view. What shall be the funda- 
mental principles for "this school in the army" for youth of different 
training and from different social milieu, and how are they to be 
worked out in practice? It might be of interest to see how an utterly 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 535 

The Age of the Teacher 

While psychophysical measurements and mental tests are in 
progress in nearly all countries determining gradually the 
child's " physiological age " and " mental age " in their rela- 
tion to chronological age, very little or nothing has been done 
in this respect with adult individuals.® This is indeed a very 
serious lack from the point of view of the right selection and 
estimation of teachers. 

With respect to the greatest benefit to the school child, as 
well as the social-economic aspect of the question, the teacher's 
age is of paramount importance. Here again future investi- 
gations based on a large number of standardized estimations 
of teachers, will be the only safe approach to our problem. 
With such comparative studies in all countries, we should 
before long have the necessary facts in hand. Until this can 
be done, the results from our material may serve as rough 
pioneer indications. Giving as they do the pupils' reaction 
to teachers of different ages (witnessed by their recall of it 
at a somewhat mature age), studies like ours here should 
also in the future be made along with those mentioned above. 

The following table A shows the age of the teachers from 
which the greatest good influence came to the pupils. Each 
ordinate represents the percentage of all good teachers occur- 
ring at the ages indicated on the abscissa. 

The general impression we get is that teachers (whether 
men or women) belozu 20 and above 40, are of less influence 
than teachers between these ages. The most efficient man 
teacher seems generally to be found from 25 to 35 years of 
age. The best woman teacher seems to have a wider range 
from 20 to 40 years ; with the climax between 30 and 35. 

It would be interesting here to compare, if possible, our 
results as to the age of the good teacher with the results in 
this respect from the studies of Ruediger and Strayer, for 
the grade school, and Boyce's for the high school, in which, 
as we have mentioned, the superintendents and principals 

democratic country like Norway has tried to solve this question in 
practice in its own way, within its army made up by ?nnual conscription 
of all men 21 years of age. I hope to give a little survey of the mili- 
tary educational arrangements of France, Germany, Switzerland, with 
special reference to Norway in this respect, in a separate article; 
meanwhile I may refer to my outline of the Norwegian system (pp. 
651-655). 

^The studies dealing wit!i "old age" may be mentioned. An excellent 
outlook over the work done, as well as valuable original results, are 
given in Sanger, W. T. (56) : A study of senescence. Unpub. Doc- 
tor's Thesis. 1915. Clark University Library. 



536 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 



judged and rated their teachers. Boyce (11) sums up the 
results from both studies as follows : 

" In the matter of experience there are some differences, 
but the results tend to the same conclusion, that experience 
is an important factor in teaching ability." 

A 

Ace DisTRitJUTiou or Teacher^ 



35 
;30 
25 
ZQ 
15 






All Good Teacher^ 
1 



k - i 



(Ien^ r- (106 cft^tj) 

Wonw^n (2fc4- " ) 



4'i 



^: 



i7^ i'o i is 



The average experience of elementary teachers for the first 
and second classes was 13 years, for the corresponding groups 
in the high school, 11.8 years. If we set the age at which 
the coming teacher leaves Normal School or College arbi- 
trarily at 22, then we get the best teacher age for the grade 
school around 35, for the high school around 34, — a result 
which, as will be seen from our material, corresponds, gen- 
erally speaking, pretty closely to the outcome of this study, 
although the woman teacher seems to us to be very good 
already at 30, which, however, may be somewhat compensated 
for by the fact that she generally starts teaching about 2 years 
earlier than the man. 



The Personality and the Methods of the Teacher 

Our question here had the following form : " Was it the 
personality or the methods (or both) employed by this teacher 
that caused you to like him or her ? " As no noticeable differ- 
ences between the grade school and the high school could be 
found from working up the material, the following table 
gives an orientating summary view of the answers, in per- 
cents : 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 



537 



Women's Returns 


Men's Returns 


Good Teacher 


Good Teacher 


Personality 


Methods 


Both 


PersonaUty 


Methods 


Both 


19 


3 


78 


22 


12 


67 


Bad Teacher 


Bad Teacher 


33.3 


12 54.7 


26 


5 


69 



Let us try to examine the women's returns. The first we 
notice is that personality and methods in the good teacher 
seem to be intmiately connected. The confusion of teacher 
with subject matter (and vice versa) which children and 
youth are very prone to, may here be an explanatory factor. 
On the other hand, this very factor points to the equal impor- 
tance of both the teacher's personality and the methods em- 
ployed, — from the point of view of evaluation and selection 
of teachers. 

Educational quantitative psychology has touched this prob- 
lem — as to learning — but very little light is yet shed upon it. 
From his gigantic statistical study of elementary mathematics 
Dr. Rice (66) draws the following conclusion: "The 
facts here presented in my opinion will allow of only one 
conclusion, viz., that the results are not determined by the 
methods employed, but by the ability of those who use them. 
In other words the first place must be given to the personal 
equation of the teacher."^ Thorndike says that Dr. Rice's 
material does not allow such a conclusion and points out 
other devices by which we may get at facts in this question. 
I have mentioned Rice's study because he is the first to try, 
by measuring of the school work, also to take the important 
question of the influence of the teacher into consideration. 
By more direct methods (as advocated by Thorndike) we 
may hope that educational quantitative psychology in the 
future also will try to study the teacher. 

" In his book of 1913 (52), Dr. Rice has abandoned the above view, 
and regards the personaHty of the Superintendents (as that of their 
staffs) as the chief controlHng factor for spirit and results in the 
common schools. 



538 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

Turning again to our table, the remarkable fact stands out 
that for one-third of all the poor teachers the disliked per- 
sonality seems to have been the sole determining factor while 
the personality of the good teacher is stressed by only about 
one-fifth of all cases. 

This proportion (3:5) gives food for thought. That the 
bad teacher is described as using poor methods for a time 
as often as the good one, is also significant in this connection. 
It should be mentioned here that " the personality of the 
teacher " is a tremendously broad term, and that in fact, in 
the popular sense in which it is used here, it embraces a per- 
son's whole " make up." In the myriads of elements which 
make a personality, the emotional factors may well be said to 
be of all importance, especially when we see a personality, 
as we do here, reflected in the minds of (or in the memory of) 
children and youth, who themselves have actually experienced 
the effect it may have. In many of Dr. Hall's studies, and 
those of his pupils, as also in several English and German 
ones, valuable light has been shed upon the emotions in 
children. A remarkable recent study by Watson and Morgan 
(69) based upon experimental data takes us still further, and 
is of special interest in our dealing with the teacher's per- 
sonality. Leaving out the experimental background I quote 
the following: 

"So convinced are we of the possibilities of getting higher incentives 
or drives from the use of these emotional factors, that we are sure our 
selection of teachers would be greatly influenced by our views. We 
think it would be a safe move now to provide in the early grades 
men teachers for girls and women teachers for boys, these teachers 
to be chosen for their pleasing personalities and for their abliities 
to attach the pupils to themselves in strong but wise friendships." 

Further, he says that few of our present teachers " have 
the gift of controlling and using the pupil's emotional life." 
I have given so much attention to this study because it is 
my belief that through studies like that, as well as through 
Krasnogorski's (36) and Dr. Mateer's (41), a clear way, and 
perhaps the only one, is pointed out, for getting facts in the 
extremely complex, but also extremely important emotional 
relationship between child and grown-up, or, in our connection 
here between pupil and teacher. If the studies on the con- 
ditioned reflex can safely be brought over into the human 
field (as Dr. Alateer's results especially seem to indicate), 
then we shall have numerous possibilities before us for work 
in the emotional field which has hitherto remained so obscure. 

The ideal teacher personality has been portrayed over and 
over again in different phrases of nearly every palladium 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 539 

within the history of pedagogy. (3) All of them gave it 
" ready made." The only trouble has been that their literary 
ideal teachers (Lassal's is an elaborate example) never have 
existed in reality, but have been and are a never-ending mem- 
ory trouble to all students in education. Now should be the 
time when we, carefully and slowly through investigations, 
with the use of all available means and methods, should begin 
trying, on an empirical basis, to build up this ideal, not as a 
universal unicum, but on differential lines. 

What sort of personality is most suitable as a teacher for 
girls of certain ages? What for boys at the different stages 
in their development? What sex of teacher for boys, for 
girls, of certain ages? What age correlation between teacher 
and pupils? etc. 

These and many other highly important questions relating 
to the teacher, are now of great significance. Someone has 
said that the history of philosophy is " the history of human 
errors." The same may be true of the history of pedagogy, 
but we pedagogues are at least now in the fortunate circum- 
stance of gradually getting means by which to correct the 
errors. 

The main school subject (or subjects) through which the 
good and bad teacher's influence ivas particularly felt by the 
pupils. Two hundred and one pupils answered the above ques- 
tion for the good teacher, 120 for the bad teacher. The remain- 
ing part of the pupils say " all " subjects, which statement, in- 
definite as it is, well goes to show that strong personal attach- 
ment to a good teacher gives an interest on the part of the 
pupil, so to speak, in whatever subject she or he teaches. 
Still more markedly (according to our figures) is the reverse 
true in the case of the disliked teacher. The personal dislike 
then seems to be for a great many pupils a determining factor 
in diminishing their interest in whatever subject he or she 
presents to them. The following typical examples may be 
cited : 

"She made me tremendously interested in History — a subject which 
always had been a bore to me. Through her winning ways and personal 
talks I got so fond of her, that I began to look forward with joy 
to her lessons. Before I got her, I used to dread every hour in His- 
tory." (College girl in recalling a high school teacher.) 

"His personality and ways were such that you could not avoid 
listening with interest to whatever he taught." (College boy recalling 
a high school English teacher.) 

"I think we all felt so repulsive against her, on account of her 
general manners and all, that we paid very little attention to all that 
she said." (Bad high school teacher.) 

In the now so numerous and elaborate mathematically 



540 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

worked out international studies of children's interests in the 
different school subjects, the important teacher-factor here 
brought to light has hitherto been totally left out of question. 
This is indeed a very grave objection against them. Such 
studies in the future may possibly be made in this general 
way : Expert evaluation based on long and thorough observa- 
tion of the different teacher personalities in the particular 
school, then the results of this, brought into correlation, with 
the children's returns. I have no doubt that we in this way 
would find a high correlation coefficient. The emotional life 
of the child and youth (we may take it out of almost every 
chapter in Dr. Hall's "Adolescence ") is the very basis of their 
mental " make-up." Pure logical or intellectual judgments 
are indeed very rare. Hence then we have the confusion of 
teacher with subject matter, and vice-versa, not only generally 
speaking, but also in cases, for instance, where the pupil has 
outspoken personal ability or inability in a certain subject, or 
subjects. In reading, for instance, a statement like this (there 
are many like it) : 

"I simply could not stand her (her shrieky voice still rings in my 
ears!) and I firmly believe that was the main reason why I lost all 
my interest in mathematics for about two years." (College girl on 
Freshman teacher in high school.) 

we get a clear impression of the all-importance of our begin- 
ning to realize the significance of the dynamic-emotional abili- 
ties in the teacher's personality, and especially " the sympa- 
thetic touch," without which many a child may be given a 
transferring help even in a purely intellectual school subject, 
like mathematics. Some people are children their whole lives, 
in this respect, as bibliographies, especially of artists, furnish 
abundant proofs. Sympathy and consideration, however, are 
not the only emotional reactions towards which the teacher 
should strive. We would also emphasize the importance of 
righteous anger and indignation, within normal limits to be 
sure, through which the pupil may learn how to meet these 
emotions in others, and to transfer them into valuable incen- 
tives for personal effort. 

Here, it seems to the writer, we are up against a great 
problem in modern pedagogy. The Herbartian doctrine of 
interest is often misunderstood. " Froebelianism," and " Mon- 
tessorianism," " Lighthardianism," and all other valuable points 
of view, especially for primary education, are taking too great 
a place in secondary education. Life is not play; it is very 
rarely that life means an opportunity for the individual to 
follow his interests, etc. 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 



541 



Turning again to our material, the following distribution 
table of the main subjects through which the pupils have met 
their best teachers gives us some interesting indications. 



C-t>'C.^y.^C<xl^ 



^ 



^i-C-cx-'w<.a_ 



f^Jdy^—lCo-^^ 



^35>-v. ^£2i2^if2^ 



Trjjjt.ci^ 



J'^A^ 



3.S 



z.s 



1-5 



lo.b 



X^-a<X^rt. JfC,ff^^ 



7.0 



5.5 



li.5 



2.5 



13.0 



'^S. 



Z?.o 



If. 5 



i.O 



13.5 



/C.^ 



HlHH OCHOOL. 




ZQ.5 



The striking fact in regard to science was that it over- 
balanced English throughout the school system, especially so 
in the grade school, and a little less markedly in the high 
school — as to number of disliked teachers. From the returns 
the following reasons may be given as typical : 

1. "He knew his subject very well (physics) but he did not seem to 
understand that he talked over our heads the whole year. Some told 
him so, but he went on as before." (Higli; school.) 

2. "She seemed to think that there was nothing else in the world than 
mathematics. If you were not very clever in that, she would not have 
anything to do with you." 

3. " She taught Home Economics out of a book " 10 

An overwhelming majority of bad science teachers are char- 
acterized as specialists, lacking a broader outlook, using bad 
methods, taking interest only in the clever pupils, not interested 
in the subject, etc. The English teacher comes in second as 
to number of bad teachers. With a summary view over both 
our tables we may stress this : 

The English teacher (as also English as a subject) has the 
greatest good influence and may have a considerable bad one, 
especially in high schools. 

The science teacher (and the sciences as subjects) may 
have a relatively great influence ; in this study, however, the 

^°We may quote here an amusing and instructive experience of Dr. 
Seashore (58, pp. 79) : "As a child I had the advantage of learning 
arithmetic under a teacher who did not know the subject. She had 
difficulty with fractions, but had the good grace to leave us to our own 
devices. We discovered that after reading the introductory statement 
for each new section and performing the required operations with con- 
fidence in our efforts, we had but little need of :;he teacher .... The 
impetus thus gained was a permanent asset. Although I later had good 
teachers, I preceded by the same method with algebra, geometry, trigo- 
nometry, and conic sections . . . ." Although this observation con- 
tains valuable suggestions, it would be rash to generalize on it ! 



542 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

bad influence from them seems almost twice as great as the 
good. 

Foreign language has the smallest number of bad teachers, 
and on the positive side seems to rank high in the high school. 

The final suggestive results may be that they all deserve 
special attention — as to fundamental training, as well as 
through practical supervisory measures in schools. As it is 
at the present time, a large number of high school teachers 
seem to be getting their material and indirectly their methods 
from the colleges, a state of affairs anything but sympathetic 
toward the high school mind. On the other hand a majority 
of the teachers from the normal schools may have a large 
amount of the theory of teaching, with little subject matter. 
Taking all different factors from the entire study here pre- 
sented into consideration, the general impression remains that 
some fundamental changes in the high school teachers' prepa- 
rations seem to be an urgent need of the time. The problem 
is at present under discussion and consideration also in most 
of the European countries.^^ As to the role of Educational 
Psychology in this matter, it is high time to turn more to a 
differential psychology of the adolescent years on the one 
hand, and try all possible means of getting at the influence of 
the teacher for these plastic years, on the other. The day must 
come when no teacher is allowed to enter into teaching in a 
secondary school without having had a thorough course in 
Educational Psychology — arranged with special reference to 
the subjects he is going to teach (35), as well as the sex 
and age of his coming pupils. By international comparative 
studies and views we may hope for a reformation of the 
present situation in the near future. 

The Physical Appearance of the Teacher 

According to common opinion among school authorities, the 
physical appearance of the teacher, and his personal " mag- 
netism," are very great factors in the teacher's personality, 
and have great effects upon the children. We have up to the 
present time very few objective data upon this question. What 
our returns may show on this subject may serve to point 
out the necessity of investigations here, and give some indica- 
tive results. It may be that the coming standardized teachers 
estimation blanks will give material enough for correlations 

11 In Germany: "Bund fur Schulreform." (Berlin, Founded 1911.) 
In England : "The civic and moral education league." London. 
In France : "La league d'education morale." Paris. 
All three have publications. 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 



543 



on a large scale. However, it will always be a problem 
besides to get the children's reactions, and this we think can 
no better be done, than (as in our study here), by obtaining 
returns from somewhat mature people, who are (as is the 
case here) not too far removed from the experience in time, 
and who on the other hand are able, on account of their 
training, to look calmly back over former vivid experiences 
in this matter. 

Let us first see what our returns say about: 



The General Appearance of the Teacher 






Good 


Bad 




Men 


Women 


Men 


Women 


Good looking 


60% 

25 

15 


74% 
17 
9 


14% 

50 

36 


12% 


Attractive 

Not good looking 

Ugly 


21 
51 
16 



It should be taken into consideration here that by far the 
greatest number of the returns are from young women. What 
we get then, is that 85^0 of all good men teachers and 91% 
good women teachers are designated as good looking or at least 
as having had a pleasing appearance (attractive) ; while the 
bad man teacher was not good looking or ugly in 86% of 
the cases, the bad women teachers in 67%. Even if we take 
these numbers on their face value, our result seems to indicate 
clearly that there is a high correlation between personal 
pulchritude and a good teacher, in the common schools — a 
fact which naturally does not exclude the good exceptions, 
as we for instance have them in our study here. The 36% 
bad men teachers designated as ugly corresponds largely with 
the ages in the recalling young women of 14-15-16. Their 
appearances are pictured in such minute details as to back 
up fully what we have mentioned before as to the high degree 
of sensitivity for outer personal attributes of a man teacher 
for those girls' ages. We are told here of the color of his 
hair, the way he wore it, the color of his eyes, the nature of 
his looks, his features, the way he used to smile or grin, his 
complexion, whether he shaved often enough or not, to what 
extent he manicured, to what degree his shoes were polished, 
etc. ! Here are some terms used in regard to the bad teacher : 
" Sour looking," " stern looking," " awkward looking," " large 



544 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 



bulging eyes," " effeminate face," " stiff face," " shiny face," 
" sharp features," " hard face," " hair down in his eyes," 
" dried up face," " stubby hair, and long moustaches, always 
wet,' " black nails," " awful smelling breath," " never smiling 
face," " ever smiling face," etc. One young girl tells a whole 
story about her former teacher in the following words : " He 
looked like ' Ichabod Crane.' " 

Some general outstanding characteristics of the good woman 
teacher may be noted : " Motherly looking," " sweet face," 
" cheerful face," " rosy face," " intelligent looking," " delicate 
skin," " striking carriage," " stately," " quick in movements," 
" graceful walk," " old type of beauty," " she was one at whom 
you would like to look a second time," " she appeared like a 
queen, yet was not lofty," etc. 

The following table gives us some indications as to some 
physical attributes of the teacher : 





Good 


Bad 




Men 


Women 


Men 


Women 


Fieure: 

Stout 

Medium 


7% 
32 
61 

55 
13 
32 

6 

94 

11 
89 


18% 

48 

34 

86 

U 

43 
57 

16 
68 


25% 

17 

58 

61 

9 

30 

7 
93 


33% 
14 


Slender (slim) 


53 


Height: 

Tall 


46 


Medium 


26 


Short 


28 


Complexion: 

Lig'ht 


28 


Dark (including brown hair) .... 
Health: 

Poor ('nervousness) 


42 
25 


Good 


75 







Leaving these numbers for the present we will first stress 
the apparent difference in health between male and female 
teachers. The percentages, 11% of male and 16% of female 
teachers, characterized as not healthy, have been compiled by 
carefully going over the returns and marking the bad teachers 
and those good teachers who clearly are designated as having 
been nervous, so that the pupils in their recalling remember 
that they actually suffered, although they in the eyes of the 
pupil seemed generally to control it wonderfully. The greatest 
part of all nervous teachers (78% of them) are more than 35 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 545 

years of age. We can of course place very little significance 
upon so little material as we have here ; it is an interesting 
fact, however, that this last finding seems to correspond 
pretty closely with the results of the latest German study. (53) 
Ninety-five teachers under treatment for nervous diseases in 
the psychiatrical clinic in Jena had entered in the following 
years of their age : 

From 20 to 25 vears old 7.4% 

From 2.5 to 35 years old 20.0% 

From 35 to 45 years old 44.2% 

After 45 years old 28.4% 

As we see, most of the patients had broken down between 
35 and 45 years of age, and Rohde finds that the nervousness 
is of diflferent sort before and after the 35th year of the 
teacher. Before, it has very little to do with the vocation, is 
not "Berufsnervositat;" after the 35th year, it is decidedly 
so. This result seems in direct opposition to earlier investi- 
gations, for instance, Wichmann's ; and the conclusion Terman 
draws from studies up to 1912, in his excellent book. (65)^^ 
" The investigations prove that it is the beginning teacher who 
runs the greatest risk of pathological nervous exhaustion," 
may not be finally established. Dr. Rohde's table is of interest 
also in connection with the good teacher's age, as we have 
brought out in this study, the middle age of them all not 
exceeding 35 years. 

As to the influence of the teacher's health upon the pupils 
Dr. Burnham says (13): "With the emphasis now placed 
upon school hygiene teachers suffering from tuberculosis, 
nervous disorders, and the like, will not long be permitted in 
the schoolroom." " Teachers who can set an example of 
healthful living and normal mental activity will more and 
more be demanded for the public schools." It seems from 
this study that there is a definite positive correlation between 
excellence of the teacher in the common school and his or her 
health. " She was so nervous, that she could shriek over the 
smallest thing now and then, and frighten us almost to death," 
writes, for instance, a college girl in recalling her 8th grade 
teacher (aged 41-2). 

Turning now to the dress of the teacher, we may first note 
that all good teachers are recalled as having been " very neat " 
or "neat" in dress. In my Norwegian study (50) I was 
able to draw the conclusion that children between 7 and 11 

12 An excellent little monograph, which should be in every teacher's 
library, not in the ordinary sense of ihat term, but it should be looked 
over frequently as a memorandum for the teacher on how daily to 
invest his best capital — the physical and mental health. 



546 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

years especially lay great stress upon the appearance of their 
acquaintances. From this study it turns out that a similar 
conclusion seems to hold still more true for the ages of 12 
and 18 in girls, and that dress generally speaking plays a 
great role in children's estimation of their teachers. 

The teacher's general manners seem also to be an important 
point in the make-up of his personality: 

"For example he would slouch way down in his chair and practically 
sit on the back of his neck. The following is horrible to tell, but it 
illustrates clearly what I mean. He used to clear his nose in his 
throat and then use the open window in place of a handerchief or 
spittoon. We were usually working at the board during these occur- 
rences and he probably thought we didn't notice him, but I believe 
that some few always knew, and the rest soon heard about it." (Col- 
lege girl in recalling a high school teacher.) 

Similar statements are not rare. To sum up the indicative 
results as to the good teacher's general physical appearance 
it appears from this study that the ideal American woman 
teacher should be: Good looking (or at least attractive) with 
a general cheerful expression, dark or light complexioned, 
rather tall, blue or brown eyed, of a median figure, healthy, 
neat, well dressed, stylishly or in subdued colors, have refined 
manners, a good carriage, be " quick in movements," have " a 
graceful walk," etc. 

The ideal American man teacher is indicated as : Dark 
complexioned, tall, slender, physically strong, healthy, well 
dressed and with good manners. 

The bad woman teacher is recalled as follows : In 86% 
of all cases not good looking (or ugly), slender, tall; in one- 
sixth of all cases, in bad health (nervous), in one-fifth of all 
cases designated as untidy in dress and person and very often 
with careless manners. 

The bad man teacher: Slender, of medium height, dark 
complexioned (94%), in 7 out of 8 cases unattractive or 
actually ugly, while every other one of them are designated 
as untidy in dress, and many noted for bad manners. 

It should be noted that these traits mentioned (on account 
of the fact that most of our returns represent the recollection 
of young women), should belong especially to the ideal Ameri- 
can teacher of girls. Future investigations ought to bring 
out the physical ideal teacher for boys, of different ages, and 
also try to designate whether there are outstanding differences 
in preferences at different stages of age, within the school 
system, for boys and girls. 

What seems, generally speaking, to have been brought to 
light in this study is that physical appearance, dress, manners. 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 



547 



etc., are essential factors in the teacher's personaHty, which 
an account of the great suggestibiHty and the lack of broader 
judgments in children, may, at least temporarily, increase or 
decrease the influence of the teacher. 



The Teacher and Discipline 

There is no noticeable difference between the grades and 
the high school here. The answers allowed the three definite 
groups — strict, moderate, lenient. The following table gives 
opportunity for numerous comparisons, not only for the dif- 
ferences between the sexes, but also for those within them. 
To see whether the specially young teachers would show any 
definite difference from the older, they are divided in the 
table into two groups. " Young " means below 30 (or 30) 
years of age ; " Old," over 30. 



Nature 


OF Discipline 


— Degre 


-E OF Strictness 






Good Teacher 


Bad Teacher 




Men 


Women 


Men 


Women 




Below 
30 


Over 
30 


Below 
30 


Over 
30 


Below 
30 


Over 
30 


Below 
30 


Over 
30 


Strict 

Moderate 

Lenient 


47.8 
52.2 


52.2 

43.4 

4.4 


61.7 
21.4 
16.6 


49.88 
36.25 
13.06 


18.9 
81 !l 


36.8 

5.3 

57.9 


51 

3.4 

45.6 


71.2 

3.4 

25.4 



We shall point out a few of the facts and leave the rest for 
the reader's consideration. 

The good teacher. In the larger percent of cases the " old " 
man, according to our results, is stricter than the young, 
while the " young " good woman teacher is much stricter than 
the old. 

Explanatory factors here may be that the good old man 
teacher relies upon his experience, knowing where the bound- 
ary limits of his discipline are, while the good young man is not 
settled as to the nature of his discipline, and is also possibly 
unconsciously relying upon his physical and mental vivacity. 
He may also purposely have adopted the more modern ideal 
of discipline, and have had the personality to handle it. The 
good young woman teacher, perhaps determined by her sex, 
may feel that she must assert herself and hold the upper 
hand of the situation. 



548 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

The had teacher. Neither the young man and old bad man 
teacher appears to be very strict, especially is this true of 
the young bad man, who is exceedingly lenient. Typical 
answer: (young man). "No, he was not at all strict, most 
of the time he simply did not care."^^ 

Both the young and the old woman teacher are strict, with 
the old woman much more strict than the young, and stricter 
than any other group! A number of sex and age factors 
probably enter in here. 

General results are that all good teachers are " strict in 
discipline to a certain degree " — which from the returns appears 
to be apparent to the pupils, from their ruling the class, 
through their personalities and from a certain few fixed prin- 
ciples, which the children often seem to have generally " felt " 
more than they have been actually conscious of them, and 
which have been silently accepted by them as natural. " I 
would say she was strict in discipline. She never said much 
about attention, however. Her manner simply commanded 
respect, and so she obtained involuntary attention " (high 
school). 

We may give the following general results : It is the bad 
teacher who resorts to the largest degree of physical punish- 
ments, and the old bad woman teacher uses it more than 
any other group, while the old man leads in " ordinary cor- 
poral punishment." 

All good teachers, here recalled, used corporal punishment 
in rare cases — which fact seems to be in agreement with Dr. 
Hall's statement that " there are certain child natures, for 
which physical punishments cannot be entirely dropped."^* 

i^One fact seems to stand out throughout this study, namely that 
there is a t>'pe of bad young men teachers within the school system of 
the United States, who seem to use the teaching profession as "a 
stepping stone," and whose influence upon their pupils, we may learn 
from our material, has been anything but beneficial. One may offer the 
suggestion that it be made obligatory* for him to stay a certain num- 
ber of years, as a secondary solution, until the wages are raised so 
that a teacher will find himself satisfied wherever he is placed in 
the system. 

1* It may be interesting in this connection to relate Dr. Hall's first 
"disciplinary case," which occurred when he, 17 years old, started teach- 
ing in a country school in Massachusetts. Some of his pupils were 
much larger than himself, and especially two of them had all the 
time before been used to being "their own masters." The first day 
Dr. Hall had the class, these two fellows were chewing tobacco in 
the schoolroom. He spoke to them about it, but they did not care. 
Before he left school that day, he hid a strong rod among the wood 
at the fireplace. The next morning, when the boys behaved as usual, 
he asked them to stop the chewing. They gave some obstinate re- 
marks. A regular fight followed. Thanks to the rod Dr. Hall got the 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 549 

As to general disciplinary measures used, the good teachers 
seem to resort to self government and the honor system, 
friendly private talks ;^^ in these ways relying upon the pupils' 
personalities and his own, while after school sessions, seem 
to mark their principal form of punishment. No good teacher 
sent a pupil to the office. 

The bad teacher seemed to use after school sessions, send- 
ing the pupil very frequently out of the room or to the office, 
expulsion, punishing by grading, and to be very prone to sar- 
casm, scolding and threats. 

To all that we hitherto have learned about the bad old 
woman teacher, it may be interesting to add here, that she is 
quite alone in regard to such disciplinary measures as : Put- 
ting the child in the closet, tying it to the chair, depriving it 
of personal adornments, etc. 

That the kind of punishments used seems (from this study) 
to be a good indicator, may be of interest to supervisors and 
to those scientists who are trying to build up standardized 
estimation blanks for teachers. 

The Teacher's Sense of Justice 

Were the children specially favored or specially misusedf 
The good woman teacher seems, from the returns, to have 
taken a personal interest in all the pupils and to have treated 
everybody on equal terms in 75% of all cases. A typical 
answer follows : " She took equal interest in the dullard and 
the dux." 

In 25% of the cases the pupil had, to a more or less degree, 
the feeling of being specially favored. In by far the most 
cases, however, this was not accompanied by any discredit 

upper hand, and succeeded in getting both out, shut the door and con- 
tinued the lesson. The next morning they were not let in. Finally 
after some days they were let in on promising to behave. In short, 
there was discipline in that room thereafter, and the significant thmg 
about it all is that whenever he in later life met these two men, who 
are now old people, they always reminded him of the event, and 
never failed to thank him heartily, for the beating they had gotten at 
the right time in their " Schliingel-periode." (Kirdly related to the 
writer by Dr. Hall.) 

15 Sarcasm is a trait, developing very late. For young children it 
ought thus to be totally banished. For the upper grade of high school 
it might well be rarely used, as an art, by a broad teacher personality 
and may thus be made a stimulus and an incentive for the pupil. 

We think Dr. G. H. Palmer, (47) clearly has shown the dangers 
which may be implied in these measures, viz., that the teacher in 
executing it must not cheapen himself through "a slap on the back 
acquaintance." 



550 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

given to the rest of the class, and was explained in terms 
like these: 

"I was specially favored with her companionship outside of school 
hours." 

"I felt that she thought I was her special charge (and a most trouble- 
some one)." 

"She complimented my work especially." 

"I had the feeling of being given special help." 

"She let me ring the bell and do other small duties." 

One can take from the returns here, that the good woman 
teacher seems to have some peculiar womanly way of com- 
municating her special satisfaction in, and her good-will toward, 
the most worthy pupils, so that it reaches its proper destina- 
tion without giving it undue publicity to the class in general. 
This special gift, which may have its basis in the woman-nature, 
seems to be a most beneficial one as a real but perhaps half- 
unconscious stimulus to the best work of the individual of the 
class. The probability of this statement is shown in replies 
like the following: 

" Sometimes I thought I was favored, but it may be because 
we understood each other, and I tried my very best to please 
her." (High school.) 

The good man teacher seems to lack this peculiar subtle 
means of "wireless" communication, as only 15% of the 
pupils here report having been conscious of special favoritism. 
His manner of showing favoritism publishes his intentions 
broadcast to the world. This is evident from about all the 
returns which claim special favoritism on the part of the 
instructor. The following examples may be given : 

"He would go hunting with some of the boys but never with others." 
(High school.) 
"He always put me up as an example to the others." (High school.) 
"He favored me by giving me too high marks." 
"He was a special friend to me as man to man." (College boy.) 

In 85% (a little more than the good woman teacher) the 
good man teacher treated all alike — showing a fair personal 
interest in all. 

"The blow was as likely to strike me as anybody." 

"He favored only those who worked." 

"He gave a square deal to everyone." Etc., etc., etc. 

The bad zvoman teacher. Seventy per cent (70%) report 
that they were not especially misused or mistreated them- 
selves, but more than 15% of these had special favorites. 
Some had such strong repugnance for the personality of the 
teacher or for the methods used that these factors overbal- 
anced the fact that they were merely not misused. They say: 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 551 

"She had strong likes and dislikes." (High school.) 

"I was not misused, but I simply did not care for her." (High 
school.) 

"She was rather good to me, in fact, but I think she was the most 
partial teacher I ever saw." (High school, reported in four cases.) 

"Everybody was afraid of her, although not specially misused." 

Thirty per cent (30%) however, were definitely misused: 

"I was misused because she did not take care in discerning the 
real offender in any misconduct." 

".She did not take into consideration that I was a lively and active 
child. She wanted the old-fashioned docile child, which I was not." 

"I always felt a stranger to her." (High school.) 

"She did not understand me." (High school boy.) 

Leaving the number given to speak for themselves, I should 
like to stress my general impressions upon the reading of the 
returns : the lack of personal rapport between teacher and 
pupil — the large factor of partiality — the lack of understand- 
ing of the child's character — and the overwhelming use of 
formal discipline. 

The bad man teacher seems, from the returns, to differ in 
one special respect from the bad woman teacher. The latter 
seems at least by formal discipline, etc., to show some interest 
in the welfare of the pupils (although she very often fails 
in her intentions) but the bad man teacher seems to be almost 
apathetic even in this respect. Ninety per cent (90%) report 
that they were not misused (although one-fifth of these had 
special favorites) but they gave reasons as follows: 

"He was too mentally lazy to misuse anyone." 

"We couldn't find out his sense of justice because he was perfectly 
disinterested in anything but his salary." 

The remaining minority of 10% tell of being misused in 
some special manner: 

"He had his 'black sheep' when he was angry." 
"At least he was not partial, for he misused us all." 
" He took the most handy one to scold." (We probably have here 
the man who uses the teaching profession as a mere stepping stone.) 

"I know that this teacher was disliked even more by other students 
than by me. I know of two concrete cases where a girl quit school, 
because of his crabbedness. One girl eloped with an aviator, and it 
came out in the papers that she had left school 'because a certain 
teacher made life miserable for her.' The other gi.l went to work as 
maid in a private family. She said that her work was hard, but her 
employer 'treated her as if she were human, and did not 'continually 
nag' at her." 

"This teacher was discharged from the school which I attended; 
at which the first incident occurred. He obtained a position in another 
school, at which the second incident occurred, abouf) four years later. 
He was let out of the second school, but is, at the present time, teach- 
ing in another high school in the same city." (High school.) 



552 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

Using a little psychoanalysis on the returns here, one prac- 
tical fact stands out very clearly, that every mistreatment 
and misuse may be a great inhibitory factor in the general 
school life, and also in the after school life of the child. It 
may be that if we could trace this factor (and associated 
factors) we could illuminate in another light the statement of 
Dewey (17): "Hardly 1% of the entire school population 
even attain to what we call higher education; only 5% to 
the grade of our high school, while much more than half 
leave on or before the fifth year of the elementary grade." 

Dewey maintains that this remarkable fact is due to the 
fact that the intellectual interest does not become dominant, 
but that the practical impulse or disposition is in the fore- 
ground. However, from our returns we should like to have 
an answer to the question: How many are driven from the 
school through the influence of the bad teacher ?^^ 

Similar studies were made of the returns from our question- 
naire in regard to the teacher's voice, the characteristics of 
enthusiasm and optimism, the temperament of the teacher, 
the teacher in relation to literature and life, the teacher's 
social activities and the teacher's influence upon the pupil's 
later life. The most important results of these studies are 
presented briefly in the following summary of the outcome 
of the whole investigation. 

Summary — General Conclusions 

1. A review of the present paidological situation of the 
problem of the teacher reveals : The study of the teacher has, 
with the exception of a very few experimental attacks, on 
the whole hitherto been neglected out of all proportion to its 
significance. 

2. Our study here, confirming all earlier investigations in 
regard to suggestion and imitation in childhood, seems to 
prove beyond doubt that the " teacher factor " is of paramount 
importance, — in fact a condition sine qua non, for all studies 
dealing with the school child. 

3. Thus all mass investigations, for instance, in regard to 
children's ideals, their interest in the different school subjects, 
measuring of the schoolwork, etc., will need to be checked 

K'Compare the study of Book (lo) ; gy pupils actually left high school 
for the main reason that they could not stand a certain teacher. 

See also the studies of Stableton : "He thinks that the small per- 
centage of male graduates from our high schools is due to 'the 
inability of the average grammar grade or high school teacher to deal 
rightly with boys in this critical period of their school life.'" Quoted 
from (27, Vol. 2, p. 285.) 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 553 

Up with special studies, bearing as directly as possible on this 
teacher factor. The whole field of child study in schools 
will need to be worked slowly and carefully over again, with 
this in view. Nothing less will give us reliable psycho-peda- 
gogical data. 

Our special results, which we present as m large part merely 

indicative are : 

I. Judging from the relative percentages of the outstanding 
good and bad teachers whom the recalling students have met 
and comparing these with the actual number of teachers of 
both sexes within the school system, our results seem to 
justify the general demand for more men teachers. 

II. The general influence of the teacher is constantly rising 
upwards through the school system, reaching a quite remark- 
able climax for the high school period. 

a. The woman teacher's good influence on girls is greatest 
at 12 years of age of the pupil ; the had influence from them 
reaches its climax at 14 years of age of the pupil. 

b. The man teacher has the greatest good influence upon 
girls at the ages 15 to 18, his bad influence upon them is 
highest at 14 years of their age. 

c. At 14 years of age of the pupil (freshman year in high 
school) we find: Very few good teachers, and the very great- 
est number of had both men and zvomen teachers, which result 
may point to the necessity of the Junior High School, with 
broadly and specially trained and well selected teachers. 

Ill a The most efficient man teacher seems generally to 
be found from 25 to 35 years of age. For girls his median 
age is 35. 

b. The best woman teacher seems to have a wider range, 
from 20-40. The relative discriminating point for good and 
bad woman teachers seems to be 30 years of age. 

c. The good teacher is, throughout this study, generally rela- 
tively younger than the bad. 

d The age of the good teacher seems to vary very little with 
the rising age of the pupils up through the school system. 
(See tables.) 

IV. We get a clear impression of the significance of the 
dynamic-emotional abilities in the teacher's personality. " Jhe 
sympathetic touch " may give a transferring help even in a 
purely intellectual subject like mathematics. 

a. The English teacher (as also English as subject) has 
the greatest good influence in mental character training, and 
may have a considerable bad influence (especially in high 
school). 



554 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 

b. The science teachers may have a relatively great good 
influence ; in this study, however, the bad influence from them 
seems almost doubly as big as the good. 

c. Foreign language teachers seem to rank high in the high 
school, while teachers of history, in this study (as in my Nor- 
wegian one), seem to have a low standard from the point of 
view of character building. 

V. Personal pulchritude, neatness in dress and good man- 
ners are essential factors in the teacher's personality, and 
correlate very high with excellence of the teacher in the public 
schools. 

VI. The good teacher's voice is given as: Medium in pitch, 
smooth in quality, and moderate in volume. 

The had female voice is designated above all as nervous, 
the had male voice as feminine. The teacher's voice has been 
a very essential factor to all recalling students. 

VII. Enthusiasm and optimism (as we have defined these 
traits, seem to be absolute attributes of a good teacher, being 
present to a more or less degree in all recalled good teachers. 

VIII. In all cases covered by our data the good teacher 
seems to be of flexible nature, able to suit different situations, 
however, with a predominance of joviality, and sense of humor, 
as a general background. The good grade teacher must 
possess the ability " to let himself go " occasionally in unre- 
strained " fun " with the children. 

IX. All good teachers recalled are designated as self-con- 
trolled, a trait apparent to the pupils in various ways. 

X. Eighty-nine per cent of all recalled good teachers were 
listed as bringing the pupils in touch with actual life in 
various ways. Formal teaching, and little or no attempt at 
education, characterizes the bad teacher. 

XI. The good man teacher over 30 years of age seems to 
be more strict in discipline than the young; while the good 
young woman teacher is much more strict than the old. The 
old bad woman teacher is more strict than any other group, 
and uses physical punishment in 3 cases out of 8. All good 
teachers here recalled used corporal punishments in rare cases. 
The art of punishment used by the teacher is a good indicator 
for judging thus the general good and bad influence from 
him. 

XII. The teacher's sense of justice is a trait apparent to 
the pupils in various ways. Mistreatment and misuse from 
the side of the teacher may be of determining influence not 
only on the child's school life, but also on its whole future. 

XIII. Approximately every second good teacher visits the 
'home, of the pupils. 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE TEACHER 555 

XIV. There seems to be a high correlation between all good 
teachers and their social activities with the pupils. Men seem 
to be more active than women, in this respect. 

a. Athletics and sport ranks highest. 

b. High school woman teachers' informal walks (whenever 
the pupils were allowed "free talk") are stressed as having 
been of very great value to girls of 14 to 18. 

XV. Every good teacher has been associated more or less 
clearly with a life ideal, which stands out for the recalling 
students, as one intimately incorporated in the teacher's per- 
sonality. In 40% of all cases also orally stressed " maxims " 
had been taken to heart by the pupils and had been guiding 
principles at work for from 1-12 years! This fact supports 
the plea for systematic " moral training " like the French 
(combined with the right teacher personality) for the grade 
and high school. 

XVI. As to the lasting effect from good and bad teachers 
on the pupil's later life, this seems to be of vital importance 
in to the pupil's choice of vocation in leading their interest 
in a certain good direction, in helping them to overcome innate 
character difficulties, etc., etc. 

XVII. The influence from good and bad teachers reaches 
far beyond their own activities — in the positive and negative 
effect they may have on the coming generation of teachers. 
This points to the necessity of good teachers in Normal Schools 
and in all other training schools for teachers. 



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